arly promotional writers, Timothy Sweet explains in "Economy, Ecology, and Utopia in Early Colonial Promotional Literature" (American Literature 71 [99]: 399-427), held an environmental awareness similar to our own. They, too, anticipated how economic enterprise is threatened by decay unless managed in terms of such unpredictable physical environmental issues as "input, output, and boundary, commodity, waste, and vent."

Into the American Woods: Negotiators on the Pennsylvania Frontier (Norton 99) contains James H. Merrell's warning concerning extant colonial translations of Native American speeches at public council meetings; transcriptions of these sometimes lengthy exchanges, including Native American comments, have been edited or shaped to suit the goals of the settlers. A war narrative that disagreed with the prevailing agendas of colonists--that insisted on the economic value of forging cross-cultural ties with converted Indians as central to providential design--surfaces in Louise A. Breen's "Praying with the Enemy: Daniel Gookin, King Philip's War, and the Dangers of Intercultural Mediatorship," one of 18 essays in Empire and Others: British Encounters with Indigenous Peoples, 1600-1850, ed. Martin Daunton and Rick Halpern (U. of Pennsylvania P. 99, pp. 101-22).

Another essay in this anthology, Kathleen Brown's "Native Americans and Early Modern Concepts of Race" (pp. 79-100), indicates that English travelers emphasized differences between cultures when they spoke of Native Americans, but they stressed differences between bodily features when they described Africans. Accordingly, Native American women struck these visitors as sexually appealing, whereas West African women were seen as deformed curiosities. Concerning North Africans, Nabil Matar's Turks, Moors, and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery (Columbia U. P. 99) concludes that Britons transferred their demonization of Native Americans as sodomites to their Muslim enemies. Although the English had prevailed in North America, they had failed in North Africa, where Anglo-captives were enslaved. These facts fostered books and illustrations--a paper holy war--that applied constructions of Native Americans to Muslims in a colonial and millennial fantasy. That both a fear in response to the New World and a desire to preserve Old World social structures led to the idea of whiteness is Valerie Babb's claim in Whiteness Visible: The Meaning of Whiteness in American Literature and Culture (New York U. P. 98, pp. 46-88), which also emphasizes the role of print in the dissemination of this racial concept. The patterns of adaptation exhibited by the racial, ethnic, and religious groups that comprise the origin of America are identified in A Nation of Peoples: A Sourcebook on America's Multicultural Heritage, ed. Elliott Robert Barkan (Greenwood P. 99), an overview with immigration tables.

Acknowledgment, rather than denial, of Native American identity interests Laura Arnold, whose "'Now ... Didn't Our People Laugh?: Female Misbehavior and Algonquian Culture in Mary Rowlandson's Captivity and Restoration" (American Indian Culture & Research 21 iv [97]: 1-28) points to "muffled" laughter as a culturally nuanced sign. By suggesting the possibility of dialogue between cultures, such laughter undercuts both the colonists' perception of Native Americans and the Puritan's vision of New England. Rowlandson's memoir, according to Marilyn C. Wesley's Secret Journeys: The Trope of Women's Travel in American Literature (State U. of New York P. 99, pp. 21-33), is primarily a travel narrative with a structure dependent on geography more than on chronology or spirituality. Rowlandson's emphasis on where rather than when her captivity occurred features a complex sense of history that enables an alternative version of woman's identity. Her narrative contests the standard Puritan representation of woman as spiritually and socially passive.

One transgression Rowlandson had to avoid was any suggestion of sexual activity with her captors, and so she wrote her account to insure her post-captive acceptance in the Puritan community. This issue of racial pollution, according to Rebecca Blevins Faery's Cartographies of Desire: Captivity, Race, and Sex in the Shaping of an American Nation (U. of Oklahoma P. 99), is the primary business of captivity narratives, which use the threat of taint to promote colonial imperialistic interests against Native Americans. If Rowlandson's account attests to her "closed" resistance to contamination by her captors, colonial representations of Pocahontas attest to her "open" accommodation of the settlers' goals. In colonial discourse, Faery concludes, the female captive's body becomes a territory where contesting forces and conflicting desires meet.

A grieving mother's elegiac vision of her lost children provides the focus of Parley Ann Boswell's "Mary White Rowlandson Remembers Captivity: A Mother's Anguish, A Woman's Voice" (Women's Life-Writing: Finding Voice/Building Community, ed. Linda S. Coleman [Bowling Green State U. Popular P. 97], pp. 109-18). "William Bradford and His Wives" (Everton's Genealogical Helper 53, ii [99]: 42-47) presents Dorys Crow Grover's research into the background of both Dorothy Bradford, who likely committed suicide while the Mayflower was anchored, and Alice Carpenter Southworth, who married Bradford three years after the disturbing death of his first wife. That a famous colonial author's concept of manliness was undermined by fears about his desire to consume is the topic of Alan Bray's "The Curious Case of Michael Wigglesworth" (A Queer World: The Center for Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader, ed. Martin Duberman[New York U. P. 97], pp. 205-15). Based on household advice literature and divorce records, Thomas A. Foster's "Deficient Husbands: Manhood, Sexual Incapacity, and Male Marital Sexuality in Seventeenth-Century New England" (William & Mary Q. 56[99]: 723-44) discloses that the Puritan understanding of marital reproduction included a strong appreciation of sexual relations as a pleasurable activity. Institutional Individualism: Conversion, Exile, and Nostalgia in Puritan New England (Wesleyan U. P. 98) presents Michael W. Kaufmann's study of analogies based on the idealization of family. Kaufmann highlights Roger Williams's insistence on the connection between language, the individual, and institutions, in contrast to John Cotton's sense of the separateness of these spheres.

A Shared Experience: Men, Women, and the History of Gender, ed. Laura McCall and Donald Yacavone (New York U., P. 98) contains 4 essays pertinent to gender relations during the colonial period, including a reprint of Richard Godbeer's study of Puritan erotic imagery. Jane Kamensky's "Talk Like a Man: Speech, Power, and Masculinity in Early New England" (pp. 19-50) and Lisa Wilson's "A Marriage 'Well-Ordered': Love, Power, and Partnership in Colonial New England" (pp. 70-97) both stress the cooperative nature of men and women in the home, where a balance of power tended to prevail. The education of men, particularly their instruction concerning the role of a virtuous woman in the successful attainment of male identity, is Patricia Cleary's subject in "Making Men and Women in the 1770s: Culture, Class, and Commerce in the Anglo-American World" (pp. 98-116).

In Coming into Communion: Pastoral Dialogues in Colonial New England (State U. P. of New York 99) Laura Henigman presents the tragic stories of women hanged for killing their babies as evidence of how an emphasis on sex disguised a breakdown in an emphasis on maternity. There were, Henigman contends, two competing discourses in the early 18th Century, one generally preferred by ministers that was based on a dualistic understanding of the marital relationship between husband and wife, and the other generally preferred by women that was based on the experience of interconnection in childbirth. In a milieu that encouraged dialogue, these were not mutually exclusive discourses. In fact, ministers and female laity influenced each other's preferred idiom, as can be seen in the impact of Sarah Edwards on her husband's final works and of Jane Colman Turell on her father's ministerial language.

In the Puritan mystical language of conversion, the saints are troped as female in their relation to the deity. This fact, Marilyn J. Westerkamp further observes in Women and Religion in Early America, 1600-1850: The Puritan and Evangelical Traditions (Routledge 99), implies an equality between men and women that potentially undermined the male political hegemony. This is particularly evident in the experience of Quaker women. The persecution of witches, who also resisted male power, represents the gendering of evil as primarily female in nature. The role of religious convention in one woman's role-playing on the stage of life is considered in "Quaker Elizabeth Ashbridge as 'the Spectacle & discourse of the Company': Metaphor, Synecdoche, and Synthesis" (Early American Literature 34 [99]: 171-89), in which Etta M. Madden argues that at the end of her personal development Ashbridge represented her body as a text for her readers.

In "Plotting William Byrd" (William & Mary Q. 56[991: 701-22) Douglas Anderson considers the intersection of public and private discourse. He concludes that Byrd's dividing-line narratives and his diary mutually eschew a fixed definition of boundaries and, instead, stress multiple, violable sites of uncertain authorization. "Human character," Anderson writes, "proves to be as fluid as the coastal landscape through which the surveyors initially wade." The example of a saint, rather than of landscape, is stressed in Kun Jong Lee's "Pauline Typology in Cabeza de Vaca's Naufragios" (Early American Literature 34[99): 241-62), which discloses de Vaca's presentation of himself as a latter-day Spanish apostle among Native Americans. John Eliot's Mission to the Indians before King Philip's War (Harvard 99) presents Richard W. Cogley's consideration of how changes in Eliot's eschatology influenced the history of his colonial endeavors. Although Eliot was not an apt observer of Native American culture, he did provide his converts with some benefits, including a significant degree of self-determination in the mission settlements.

Children suffering from contorted limbs and jaws out of joint are featured in A Fever in Salem: A New Interpretation of the New England Witch Trials (Ivan R. Dee 99), in which Lauie Winn Carlson deduces that they were afflicted by mosquito-borne encephalitis rather than the Lord of the Flies.

Edward Taylor's Reformed appropriation of Roman Catholic matter--the crusades, the Knights of Christ, the martyr's crown, and the sign of the cross--is the topic of WJS's "Taylor's 'Meditation 1.30... (Explicator 58 [99]: 8-10). An obscure verse by Thomas Morton is explored in Jack Dempsey's "Reading the Revels: The Riddle of May Day in New English Canaan" (Early American Literature 34 [99]: 283-312). Remarkable for its inclusion of Native American cultural matter in a vision of colonial regenerative possibilities, this poem symbolically features the number three. Political and cultural issues likewise emerge in Dempsey's annotations to The Essential New English Canaan? (Digital Scanning 99), a modernized text based on collations of the sixteen extant copies of Morton's book.

How the published version of Jonathan Edwards's narrative of the Northampton revival became a "cultural construction" with a transatlantic impact is one of Frank Lambert's disclosures in Inventing the "Great Awakening (Princeton U.P. 99). Revivalists assembled diverse spiritual episodes into a single "narrative" event, even as essentially promotional newspaper accounts of George Whitfield's popularity pre-shaped the "narrative" of his success in the colonies. News of a spiritual awakening in one town served as an influential script for revivals in other towns, with the result that various accounts exhibit similarities in language and design. By the middle of the 18th Century, however, there were detractors who used the same media as the revivalists to assail the Great Awakening as an artfully designed interpretive fiction.

A collage of contrasts laden with hidden meanings that expose Christian hypocrisy and communicate to African American readers is revealed in Antonio T. Bly's "Wheatley's 'To the University of Cambridge, in New-England... (Explicator 55[97]: 205-8). Bly's "Wheatley's 'On the Death of a Young Lady of Five Years of Age"' (Explicator 58 [99]: 10-13) indicates that subtextually the poet identifies with the deceased subject of her elegy and politically focuses on heaven as a place of freedom and equality. An embodied subject is emerges in Wheatley's elegies, Robert Kendrick explains in "Other Questions: Phillis Wheatley and the Ethics of Interpretation" (Cultural Critique 38[97-98]: 39-64); the poet invites her readers to recognize her as a real encounter outside familiar circumstances. Aimable Twagilimana agrees, arguing in Race and Gender in the Making of an African American Literary Tradition (Garland 97, pp. 57-66) that Wheatley's intrinsically ideological self-representation both enstates and revises perceptions about other slaves.

Olaudah Equiano, Twagilimana further observes, establishes his identity by making use of Christian linguistic and spiritual matter in ways designed to instruct his white audience and also to influence the formation of selfhood in his black readers. Slavery and travel, in the context of mercantile imperialism, are the predominant concerns of Thomas W. Krise's edition of Caribbeana: An Anthology of English Literature of the West Indies: 1657-1777(Chicago U. P. 99). Krise weighs the influence of Sir Walter Raleigh, William Shakespeare and Daniel Defoe, among others.

How proto-romantic attitudes toward Native Americans contributed to the post-revolutionary goal of resettling their land is one of the main features of Anthony F. C. Wallace's Jefferson and the Indians: The Tragic Fate of the First Americans (Harvard 99). Factional hopes and fears, as embodied in the architectural aesthetics of Jefferson and others, comprise C. M. Haffis's disclosure in "Washington's Gamble, L'Enfant's Dream: Politics, Design, and the Founding of the National Capital" (William & Mary Q. 56[99]:527-64). Disguised allusions and quotations in three letters, according to Elaine Forman Crane's "Political Dialogue and the Spring of Abigail's Discontent" (William & Mary Q. 56[99]: 745-74), reveal Abigail Adams's discontent with the status of women. Extracting comments from other sources and resorting to innuendo and surreptitious humor, Adams applied this Revolutionary rhetoric in a context intended to communicate her objection to the subjugation of women.

A hope to benefit commercially from the mingling of news and popular culture is identified by Thomas C. Leonard, whose "Recovering 'Wretched Stuff' and the Franklin's' Synergy" (New England Q. 72[99]: 444-55) features the restoration of a ballad about the pirate Blackbeard written by Benjamin Franklin at the age of thirteen. Modern Language Studies presents three essays on Franklin: Carla Mulford's "Franklin, Modernity, and Themes of Dissent in the Early Modern Era" (28, ii[98]: 13-27); Joseph Murphy's "The Loafer and the Loaf-Buyer: Whitman, Franklin, and Urban Space" (28,ii[98]: 41-54); and Michael Drexler's "Managing the Public: Strategic Publication in Franklin and Whitman" (28, ii[98]: 55-67). The common impression of Franklin as a celebrant of individualism is challenged by Edward White, whose "Urbane Bifocals: The Federalist Sociology of Franklin's Autobiography" (American Literary History 11[99]: 1-33) indicates that the constitutional convention resulted in a change in sentiment between the first and the third parts of this famous chronicle. In the third part the individual gives way to a Federalist utopian fantasy of an ideal impersonal system, based on an urban and urbane capitalism, that eradicates unsystematic individualism.

In "Figuring Benjamin Franklin in American Cultural Memory" (New England Q. 72[99]: 415-43) Carla Mulford surveys the profile of Franklin's national image during the 19th Century, when his mass-consumed image served nativists and immigrants alike as the figural body for American success. "Cheating with Sound: Imagining Civic Culture in Federalist Culture" (Arizona Q. 54, iv[98]: 1-24) presents Nicholas Rombes's assessment of how Republican discourse prevailed over Federalist discourse in the 1790s. The Federalists had reconceptualized the relation between language and "the people" in a manner that suggested an exclusive, rather than an inclusive, group of true citizens.

The violation of women in a culture based on "a rapist ethic and a neocolonialist attitude" is the main concern of The Seduction Novel of the Early Nation: A Call for Socio-Political Reform (Michigan State 99), in which Donna R. Bontatibus addresses the implications of such novels as Charlotte Temple, The Coquette, and Female Quixotism. The theme of female educational and political deprivation pervading seduction fiction suggests that republican society contradicts its repudiation of colonial servitude by replicating that very condition in its failure to extend freedom and independence to women. Kay Ferguson Ryals's

"America, Romance, and the Fate of the Wandering Woman: The Case of Charlotte Temple" (Women, America, and Movement: Narratives of Relocation, ed. Susan L. Roberson [U. of Missouri P. 98], pp. 81-105) urges that this novel be read as a quest romance in which the heroine fails as a result of her gender. Susanna Haswell Rowson's book invites its readers to rethink the cultural conditions that contributes to this failure.

In Sentimental Bodies: Sex, Gender, and Citizenship in the Early Republic (Princeton U. P. 98) Bruce Burgett points to changes in the concept of sentiment along gender and class lines as it becomes associated with female bodies and late 18th-century social constructions of female identity. By portraying women as a public and political repository of affect, Hannah Foster's contradictory Coquette resists and reaffirms an alliance between sentimental feeling and social codes. Brown's Clara Howard suggests the loss of the possibility of an ungendered sentimental citizenship.

In "Constitutional Secrets: 'Memoirs of Carwin' and the Politics of Concealment" (Criticism 39[97]: 89-117) Paul Downes argues that Carwin is the democratic subject in Charles Brockden Brown's representation of the secret nature of the democratic individual; such inscrutability is a form of power that displaces and replaces arbitrary monarchical authority. Brown's doubt concerning the rationality of early republican society is the subject of Anita Vickers's "Social Corruption and the Subversion of the American Success Story in Arthur Mervyn" (Prospects 23[98]: 129-46). Brown records the legal, political, and economic anarchy of the 1790s, when good citizens had to resist social authority in order to counter the criminal subversion of social welfare. This impression of his milieu accounts for Brown's shift in allegiance from Godwinian idealist to radical Federalist.

Judith Sargent Murray: A Brief Biography with Documents (Bedford 98) has been prepared by Sheila L. Skemp, and Murray makes an appearance in The Cambridge History of American Theatre, I: Beginnings to 1870 (Cambridge U. P. 98), ed. Don. B. Wilmeth and Christopher Bigsby. Descriptions of the correspondence between Ebenezer Hazard and a man who aimed to produce guides to proper conduct are a main feature of Russell M. Lawson's The American Plutarch: Jeremy Belknap and the Historian's Dialogue with the Past (Greenwood Press 98).