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Psy 348 Buddhist perspectives on mind – cognition – attention
Science – philosophy – psychology start with fundamental assumptions which guide the way we conceive of reality, generally, and of particular topics/issues, specifically. Early in the semester, we noted four important assumptions that western psychology makes:
Primacy of “mind” & mind/body dualism
Western psychology: Contemporary cognitive psychology is deeply mentalistic and dualistic, paying scant regard to the role of physical or social factors in cognitive activities.
Buddhist views: Mind is primary; independence of the body is an illusion. Dualism is an erroneous idea.
Primacy of rational thinking versus emotion/feeling
Western psychology: Contemporary cognitive psychology reifies rational thinking, with only the briefest acknowledgement of emotional effects on cognitive activity. A recent movement in counseling and clinical psychology addresses this issue (c.f. REBT therapy), although thus far without strong cognitive theoretical support.
Buddhist views: Rational thinking is very important aspect of developing understanding of reality, but it isn’t sufficient by itself. Emotions are aspects of the mind, not of the body, and thus like the body they are directly affected by mental processes and states. "Negative" emotions, which are particularly destructive to clear thinking, as well as to attaining insights into reality, arise from fundamental, wrong views about reality.
Mechanistic versus organic
Western psychology: Contemporary cognitive psych, like most of the rest of western psychology, heavily emphasizes mechanistic descriptors & assumptions, after giving a bow to Gestalt holism regarding perception taken in isolation.
Buddhist views: Buddhist perspectives aren’t framed in terms like the foregoing. However, they do strongly emphasis the value of organic life as an important aspect of "spiritual" growth and development, so the foregoing mechanistic implications do not fit their values.
Structure versus process
Western psychology: Contemporary cognitive psychology focuses mainly on hypothetical mental structures & processes, usually with the computer processor as the standard metaphor for what the mind must be like. Associationism is given a bow, especially regarding perception & memory, while Behaviorism is almost completely dismissed as irrelevant.
Buddhist views: Again, this framework is largely foreign to Buddhist thinking about cognition. Mental processes are strongly emphasized, although from an applied, “how to” perspective, rather than hypothetical constructs.
Buddhist perspectives regarding cognition, using their terms
Western psychology has tended to focus on abstract & hypothetical constructs when discussing cognition, attention, and perception
Buddhist psychology has tended to focus on practical questions regarding how to develop insights into reality and how to develop skills that enhance both understanding and well-being/happiness.
Four basic premises/assumptions
Suffering – life as we understand it is imbued with unavoidable suffering; periods of "happiness" are inevitably intermingled with suffering
Cause & effect – all experience is governed by the law of cause & effect: usually called “karma.” There are no exceptions, hence there are no “accidents,” etc in the pure sense of that word. We are entirely responsible for our situations, at all times. The fundamental cause for all suffering is ignorance. It, in turn, usually manifests as dualist thinking/beliefs, obsession with "self," selfishness, fear, anger, violence, etc.
Cessation of suffering – the seemingly unavoidable & inevitable suffering can, in fact, be stopped by eliminating ignorance and its manifestations
The eight-fold path to enlightenment – techniques & practices for developing insight and thus eliminating ignorance and, hence, suffering
Three major factors in traversing the “path”
Ethics – how we behave toward others greatly affects our ability to traverse the other two parts of the path. Also, since karma is entirely a function of our personal behaviors, our ethical stance determines whether we find ourselves in perilous circumstances replete with suffering & inimical to good practice, or in beneficent circumstances that enhance well-being & are conducive to good practice. Compare to western cognitive psych, where not only are emotions usually ignored, but also ethics & other aspects of how we relate to others. At most, we might talk about how cognition would affect them, but never the reverse. In Buddhist cognition, the arrows point both ways: all aspects of what we are & do continually affect each other. Cognitive development affects one’s ethics & one’s ethics affect one’s cognitive development. Likewise for emotions, etc.
Mental Quiescence (MQ)– Sometimes called “calm abiding” – stopping the continual barrage of thoughts, feelings, etc that relentless occupy every waking moment. Once the obsessive internal noise is eliminated, then one can attend to one’s situation with undistracted, completely focused awareness – often called “single-pointed” attention. Accomplishing MQ can be done by anyone, whether Buddhist or not.
Insight – Understanding the true nature of our situation, of reality. This is easy to explain intellectually, and is usually based on rational examination of relevant issues at first. However, rational investigation leads only to intellectual understanding. Full insight is difficult to experience directly: this full experience requires accomplished MQ skills. Insight in Buddhism refers to understanding “emptiness” and “co-dependent arising.”
Emptiness All aspects of ordinary reality are
temporary & lack any kind of inherent existence
Co-dependent arising All phenomena participate in co-dependent relations. There is no “independence,” no dualism. Everything has a complex array of prior conditions from which it arises. There are no accidents, no spontaneous events or behaviors, . . ..
From our
conventional perspective, we imagine that we are independent,
free, spontaneous, etc.; that we have a “self” that is permanent, in
spite of superficial changes in our bodies, minds, etc. Conventionally,
those imaginations have some truth to them.
Nothing is independent. Nothing is permanent. Not even the “self.”
Note the different implications that the foregoing
has on the way we think about and set values on ourselves, others, etc,
versus western notions of an independent “self,” freedom of choice, etc. The “self” wants things, . . . Your “self” is independent of my “self” & they continually compete for stuff: “I want . . .” and you're in my way . . .!
Understanding the foregoing ideas intellectually is not difficult. In many respects they are congruent with current western scientific thinking. However, according to Buddhist teaching, intellectual understanding is not equivalent to direct experiential awareness of those concepts. Until we achieve the latter, we’ll continue to behave as though we are independent, have inherent existence, etc. Intellectual understanding by itself is not sufficient to eliminate our deep propensity to reify “self,” “independence,” etc.
Thus the overriding purpose of meditation is to
achieve experiential awareness . . .
Specific practice issues & techniques for achieving cognitive control & insight: The techniques used by Buddhists are well-known outside of Buddhism, e.g., in Christian and Islamic practice, but they have usually not been highly developed and taught to the general populace. The reasons for this difference are not clear, but they might lie in different religious assumptions: Christianity and Islam – ultimate higher power/deity = faith as the way to salvation Buddhism – no ultimate deity = one’s fate is in one’s own hands Profound cognitive & behavioral implications for those differences
Ethics Generally, Buddhists teach the same ethical precepts as most of the well-known ethical systems – refraining from killing, from stealing, from lying, etc., and encouraging kindness, compassion, generosity, etc.
From a cognitive-development perspective, one of the effects of good ethics would be to lower one’s worrying, fretting, etc about poor ethical choices & thus free one’s cognitions for more useful/interesting tasks. Without an overriding, permanent “self,” selfishness would diminish thus making good ethics easier! In terms of “karma,” good ethics lead to good returns in one’s life, thus enhancing cognitive/spiritual practice (e.g., meditation), while poor ethics lead to distressing returns that interfere with cognitive/spiritual practice.
Mental Quiescence (MQ) ~ Calm Abiding Gen Lamrimpa: Calming the Mind: Tibetan Buddhist Teachings on Cultivating Meditative Quiescence Pabonka Rinpoche: Liberation in the Palm of Your Hand Peter Harvey: An Introduction to Buddhism
The task here is to eliminate those relentless thoughts, etc, that cascade continually through our awareness. Once the onslaught has been stopped, then one presumably can direct one’s awareness wherever one wishes, with great intensity and without distraction. It’s easy to understand the foregoing idea, but in practice it’s astoundingly difficult to achieve without persistent and determined practice. Most people who attempt it evidently let their deep-seated propensity to indulge in distractions maintain control of their awareness, and thus fail & usually give up trying.
Especially for beginners, the set-up for practice is crucial: Appropriate environment – few distractions Appropriate posture, etc Appropriate frame of mind Appropriate object upon which to focus exclusively while learning MQ Religious people often go with a religious image The Buddha recommended simply attending to one’s own breath People have used a wide variety of objects No switching to a different object once you’ve started
Five hindrances [note the strong psychological aspects of all of these] Sensual desire – other things are more alluring & interesting [The list is endless: entertainments, mindless socializing, laziness . . .] Aversion to the task – put off
practice : we aren’t good at it & don’t enjoy it Sloth & torpor – this is lethargy & drowsiness within the practice Restlessness & worry – excitement over “successes” or frustration because of difficulties Fear of commitment – vacillation regarding the worth of the practice Hindrances eliminated by persistence & patience – “training the wild animal, the mind” –
Nine MQ stages (after Gen Lamrimpa & Pabonka Rinpoche) 1 Placement – mind is dir to the object but spends most of the time off At first, attention is fickle, constantly shifting Work on stability – establish & maintain focus on the object Stability is paramount – clarity, for now, is secondary Clarity = the object is vividly clear & details highly apparent Compare to notes re: visual representation – western psych usually argues that mental representations are shadowy & lacking in detail; ordinarily this is indeed true! Fault: Laziness (putting off practice); Forgetfulness during session Forgetting = other thoughts arise & one completely forgets the meditation! It’s astounding how fast forgetting occurs at first Counting one’s breaths helps maintain attention, but one very quickly learns how to count while also having other thoughts in mind : ( It helps to have a sense of humor at one’s ineptitude during the early stages Antidote: Mindfulness – maintain strong determination to stay focused
2 Continual Placement – brief periods of continuity of placement (“Rest periods from the onslaught of compulsive conceptualization”) Cultivate “mindfulness” – i.e., remember what you’re trying to do & stay on it! Repeatedly engaging in the practice – sheer repetition improves one’s skill Stability is still paramount – clarity, for now, is secondary Faults: Forgetfulness & Distraction via scattering & excitement Scattering = awareness wanders randomly to other thoughts Excitement = other thoughts are alluring & thus attract one’s awareness Note that Scattering & Excitement can co-occur with the on-object awareness They “run alongside” or “in the background” Antidote: Mindfulness 3 Patch-like Placement – brief periods of off-object, but usually mind is on-object One begins to feel confident in one’s ability to achieve MQ The periods “on-object” are encouraging; “off-object” is annoying Mindfulness is pretty strong: it’s becoming much easier to stay “on-object” Stability is still paramount – clarity, for now, is still secondary Faults: Distraction via scattering & excitement; occasional forgetfulness Stability is getting pretty good, but that “background noise” is still there too. Antidote: Mindfulness 4 Close Placement – From the start of the session, mind is continually on object Exciting & encouraging stage – at last, no forgetfulness Mindfulness is great – it’s completely “in charge” now Sense of separation of mind from object begins to dissolve Most occurrences of gross Scattering & Excitement are eliminated, but some do still occur Stability is STILL paramount – clarity, for now, is still secondary Faults: Gross scattering & excitement still present but greatly diminished Antidote: Mindfulness 5 Subduing – Continuity/stability of object-awareness is maintained Danger: thinking that you’ve achieved complete MQ! Vigilance arises Vigilance = being alert for & eliminating problems as soon as they appear Stability is achieved, so now work on clarity [At last!] Faults: Gross laxity Laxity = à one easily maintains awareness of the object, but without intensity Thus the focus is somewhat blurry & details are missing Antidote: Vigilance –watching out for signs of laxity & trying to overcome it
6 Pacifying – Continuity/stability easily maintained You naturally see the faults of distractions & thus you ignore them Vigilance is good, so major problems are stopped even before they arise Continue to work on clarity You want the object to be vividly, brilliantly clear with all details readily apparent Faults: Mid-level excitement & laxity These are not so grossly obvious & it’s easy to overlook them Excitement here is often related to thoughts about the meditation They cause just a slight blurriness of the object, & minor details are missed Antidote: Vigilance –watch for these less gross distractions before they arise
7 Fully Pacifying – Continuity/stability exceedingly easily maintained Recognize & avert mid-level distraction & laxity immediately as they arise Sheer intent to maintain stability & focus eliminates almost all problems Faults: Subtle excitement & laxity arise These are really hard to detect at first They cause very slight, almost unnoticeable blurriness of the object Very minute details of the object are missing Antidote: Maintain vigilance 8 Single-pointed Application – Mind goes to object without distraction or laxity As long as effort/intent is maintained, distractions do not arise Deep sense of familiarity with the practice & the object arises One is so attuned to the object, that the sense of duality between you as the observer and the object as something “out there” has disappeared. We might say that Buber’s “I – It” duality has become the unitary “I – Thou” Need for “effort” diminishes with repeated practice Work on subtle aspects [nuances etc] of clarity & stability Faults: Subtle distraction & laxity hover, but do not actually arise I.e., the boogie-bear is lurking, and you know it . . . Antidote: Maintain vigilance against arising of subtle distraction & laxity 9 Meditative Equipoise – Equanimity/Calm Abiding is natural & effortless No antidotes required – just start & the meditation proceeds without effort Familiarization is fully attained – effort is no longer needed Clarity & stability are achieved Faults: None Antidote: None
How long does all this take? It depends on how often one practices, how regularly, etc But a reasonable estimate for most people is a few weeks to get through the earlier stages, with a probable max of around 2 years to achieve level 9. That’s assuming that practice is regular (at least a couple times per day at first, for ~ 15 or so minutes per session. Sessions would need to increase in frequency (up to 4 or 5 times per day for later stages) and duration (20 – 30 min per session, or longer if circumstances permit and the sessions go well). If sessions are going poorly, then one usually should terminate them early & try again later. Some times they’ll be great & other times awful, especially during the early stages.
Side-effects of achieving MQ – deep sense of joyfulness, exuberance, well-being, clarity, etc MQ is an astounding accomplishment that very few people ever experience, although most of us presumable could do so. MQ can be developed by anyone, regardless of their religious stance Incidentally, most “ordinary” Buddhists don’t achieve MQ, just as most Christians don’t achieve the perfect faith that can “move mountains.” Buddhists are subject to the same inane desires, hopes, fears, bothers, annoyances, selfishness, meanness, greed, stupidity, etc as all other humans. They too have to practice, or else they’re Buddhist in other respects, but not in MQ achievement. Achieving MQ provides an extraordinary ability (highly focused, undistracted awareness) than can be pointed to developing insight (as well as other skills), which requires additional meditative techniques.
Practice via dreams
[In western psychology, we routinely dismiss dreaming as nothing more that an epiphenomenon that accompanies sleep. Some Buddhist practitioners see it differently: although the content of ordinary dreams have no particular significance, they say that the dream state can be deliberately used for meditative & cognitive practices. They argue that it's particularly useful in breaking our habitual tendency to "dualistic" thinking about the nature of reality.]
Excerpts and notes after: Tarab Tulku XI – Buddhist Perspective on Lucid Dreaming Tarab Tulku was educated in Tibet at the University of Drepung Monastery, where he received the highest degree, Lharampa Geshe, in Buddhist philosophy and metaphysics, as well as in meditation disciplines. At present Tarab Tulku is the head of the Tibetan section of the Royal Library and of the Tibetan department of Copenhagen University.
Preliminary to dream yoga, the practitioner must be able to remember dreams. [So it’s important to work to achieve these. Keeping a dream diary, “willing oneself” to remember dreams, etc. can all be helpful. At first, if you aren’t good at it, it’ll be quite frustrating. But with practice, as with MQ meditation, you’ll get better at it.]
Stage One The first stage of dream yoga is "holding the dream." This stage implies the training of "lucid dreaming" — to know the dream is a dream while dreaming. In order to experience lucid dreams whenever desired—not just at random—the practitioner has to train her will power to be able to go consciously into the dream state directly from the waking state, or else to realize while dreaming that she’s dreaming. [Technique: Before falling asleep, tell yourself to “notice your hands” & use that as a cue to realize that you’re dreaming. Quite shockingly entertaining the first time or two that you’re successful!]
Stage Two The second stage is "mastering the dream." In this stage, knowing the dream is a dream while dreaming, the practitioner develops her power of using her dream body with volition. That is, she not only realizes that she's dreaming, but she deliberately directs her dream-body to do various things, just as she directs her waking body. This can be surprisingly difficult at first - often one simply "wakes up" unexpectedly - but with practice one stays in the dream. One can practice all sorts of things - levitating, moving "instantaneous" from one point to another, investigating psychological issues, . . .
Stage Three The third stage is "changing the dream." A fundamental point in dream yoga is to break or go beyond our dualistic way of existence. In this stage the practitioner starts breaking some of our strongest beliefs: the belief in the solidness and absoluteness of objects, the belief in our separateness from the object, the belief in time linearity and space fixation. As the obsessive clinging to those beliefs is eliminated, the practitioner can readily change objects, and/or can create objects at will – just by “willing” it so!
Stage Four The fourth and last stage of dream yoga is to "merge with the unity of the subtle body/mind." Here the practitioner is no longer working with dream objects & appearances. From this state of being, she works directly with her relationship to the waking state reality, also breaking the ordinary natural laws of the reality of the waking state. [WH note: very abstruse!]
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